Ever wondered why your great-grandmother was never obsessed with counting calories? Welcome to the fascinating world of diet culture, where kale smoothies are the new apple pie and "beach body ready" is a year-round obsession.
We're about to embark on a journey through time, exploring how our relationship with food morphed from simple sustenance to a complex web of rules, restrictions, and Instagram-worthy plates. From the corset-cinching days of yore to today's globally connected world of #fitspiration, we'll unpack how diet culture has woven itself into the fabric of our lives.
As we explore the historical roots of diet culture, we'll uncover its connexions to body positivity, eating disorders, and fatphobia. We'll delve into ancient food taboos, mediaeval feast and famine cycles, and the rise of nutritional science. By understanding this evolution, we can gain insights into creating a healthier relationship with food and our bodies.
Ancient Rituals and Food Taboos
Egyptian beliefs about food and the afterlife
The ancient Egyptians had a profound belief in the afterlife, viewing it as an extension of earthly existence. They believed that the deceased needed sustenance not only for their bodies but also for their souls in the next world [1]. This belief led to the practice of mummifying food, a ritual that can be traced back over 3,000 years.
The process of mummifying food involved several steps, including drying and salting. By removing moisture and applying salt, food items were effectively dehydrated, preventing decay and spoilage. This preservation technique was similar to that used for human and animal mummies.
The tomb of Tutankhamun provides a fascinating glimpse into ancient Egyptian food rituals. Howard Carter unearthed over a hundred crafted baskets containing remnants of plant-based sustenance, including wheat, barley, freshly baked loaves of bread, sycamore figs, dates, melons, and grapes [1]. King Tut's tomb also contained jars of wine, each labelled with the vineyard of origin, the name of the chief vintner, and the year of production.
Kosher and halal dietary laws
The Islamic dietary laws (halal) and the Jewish dietary laws (kashrut; in English, kosher) share many similarities but also have distinct differences. Both sets of laws are detailed and described in their respective religious texts: the Quran and Sunnah for Islam, and the Torah, Talmud, and Shulchan Aruch for Judaism [2].
As a general rule, most kosher foods not containing alcohol are also halal. Both sets of beliefs prohibit the consumption of pork and animals with fangs (such as cats, dogs, lions, and bears) [2]. However, the list of animals forbidden by kashrut is more restrictive, as it requires that mammals must chew cud and have cloven hooves to be kosher.
One notable difference is in the consumption of aquatic animals. To be kosher, aquatic animals must have scales and fins [2]. Most Sunni schools of thought consider all sea creatures halal, except for the Hanafi school, which requires them to be fish. Twelver Shia Muslims, however, only consider sea creatures with scales to be halal, with some exceptions for certain crustaceans.
Another significant difference lies in the consumption of alcohol. For a substance to be halal, it must not contain alcohol of any kind. In contrast, kashrut allows the consumption of any sort of alcohol (except for grape wine and grape juice, which must be manufactured under Jewish supervision) as long as it has kosher ingredients [2].
Aztec and Mayan food rituals
The Mayans and Aztecs had intricate food rituals that were deeply intertwined with their religious beliefs and social structures. Food plants were used not only for nutrition in everyday life but also for rituals, funerals, trade, and elite use [3].
One of the most significant food items in Mayan culture was cocoa. The Mayans were the first people to grow the cocoa plant for food, and they believed it to be a gift from the gods [4]. The Mayan word 'theobroma' means 'food of the gods'. Cocoa beans were used in ceremonial sacrifices to the gods and were also drunk at wedding ceremonies. Cocoa was not just a ceremonial drink; it was also a symbol of social status. The beans were ground and mixed with chilli peppers, honey, and cornmeal to create a special drink served only to the rich [4].
Maize held a special place in Mayan mythology. It was said to be the food of creation, as the first humans were believed to have been crafted from an ear of corn [4]. This belief underscores the importance of maize in Mayan culture and diet.
The Middle Ages: Feast and Famine
The Middle Ages saw a stark contrast between the eating habits of different social classes, with food serving as a significant marker of status. This period was characterised by the influence of religious institutions on dietary practises, the importance of spices in cuisine, and the vast differences in food consumption between the nobility and the peasantry.
Monastic influence on diet
Monasteries played a crucial role in shaping mediaeval dietary habits. The Rule of Saint Benedict, written in 516, set forth guidelines for monastic life, including strict regulations on food consumption [5]. Benedictine monks were not entirely vegetarian but had limitations on meat consumption. They were prohibited from eating the flesh of four-legged animals but could consume meat from birds and fish [5].
The Cistercian Order, established in Scotland in 1136, followed an even stricter interpretation of the Rule. Cistercian monks were mostly vegetarian. Exceptions were made only for the sick or on feast days when fish and eggs might be permitted [5].
Despite these restrictions, many monasteries faced an obesity crisis. By the late 13th century, Benedictine monks were enjoying three substantial meals a day, with some consuming up to 7000 calories on feast days and 4000 calories on days of "abstinence" [6]. This overconsumption led to health issues, with excavations of monastic cemeteries revealing the remains of monks suffering from degenerative bone disease caused by obesity.
The role of spices in mediaeval cuisine
Contrary to popular belief, spices were not used to mask the taste of rotting meat. Instead, they served multiple purposes in mediaeval society. Spices were used in perfumes, religious rituals, medicine, and, of course, cooking [7]. They were considered a luxury item and a status symbol, distinguishing the wealthy from other social classes.
Mediaeval cookbooks mention up to 40 different kinds of spices, with sugar, black pepper, cinnamon, ginger, and saffron being the most commonly used [7]. The use of spices varied across Europe, creating a unique European elite flavour palate. For instance, England used more tail pepper, while France favoured long pepper. Italy used a lot of saffron but less ginger compared to England and France.
Dietary differences between social classes
The mediaeval period saw significant disparities in food consumption between social classes. The nobility enjoyed a diet rich in fresh game seasoned with exotic spices, while the working classes subsisted on coarser fare such as barley bread, salt pork, and beans [8].
During times of famine, which were not uncommon, peasants faced severe food scarcity. They might be forced to grind acorns into flour for bread or prepare "horse bread," a heavy, dark loaf made from dried peas, barley, and other less desirable ingredients [9].
The perception of certain foods differed greatly from modern times. For example, whole-grain bread now considered a premium product, was seen as peasant fare in the Middle Ages. The nobility preferred heavily milled, white wheat bread. Similarly, fish like salmon and lobster, now considered delicacies, were regarded as low-class food [9].
The Catholic and Orthodox Churches also had a significant influence on eating habits. Consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most Christians, with all animal products prohibited during the strictest fasting periods [8]. These religious practices further shaped the dietary landscape of mediaeval Europe, creating a complex interplay between feast and famine, luxury and necessity, in the realm of food and nutrition.
Colonialism and Changing Global Diets
The Columbian Exchange, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas in 1492, had a profound impact on global diets and agricultural practices. This exchange of crops, animals, and diseases between the Old World (Eastern Hemisphere) and the New World (Americas) reshaped food cultures across continents and had far-reaching consequences for world history [10].
Introduction of New World crops to Europe
The Americas' farmers gifted other continents with staple crops such as corn (maize), potatoes, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Secondary food crops like tomatoes, peanuts, pumpkins, squashes, pineapples, and chilli peppers also made their way to the Old World [10].
These introductions had a significant impact on European agriculture and diet. Corn, in particular, altered agriculture in Europe, Asia, and Africa. It underpinned population growth and famine resistance in parts of China and Europe, mainly after 1700. Corn's ability to grow in places unsuitable for tubers and grains, and its potential for multiple harvests per year, made it a valuable crop [10]. It also served as livestock feed, particularly for pigs.
The potato, domesticated in the Andes, had its strongest impact in northern Europe. From central Russia across to the British Isles, its adoption between 1700 and 1900 improved nutrition, checked famine, and led to a sustained spurt of demographic growth [10].
Spread of European foods to colonies
As European colonisers arrived in the Americas, they brought with them their food practices and preferences. The Spanish invaders, for instance, considered Indigenous foods such as corn and local wild meats to be lacking in proper nutrition. Instead, they brought pigs, cattle, and sheep to feed their men what they considered a proper, higher-class European diet [11].
The colonisers' elitist, Christian food practices clashed with Indigenous foodways. This clash led to a colonial discourse of "right foods" (superior European foods) vs. "wrong foods" (inferior Indigenous foods). The Spaniards believed that without the "right foods," they would die or, worse in their minds, become like Indigenous people [12].
Impact on Indigenous diets
The impact of colonialism on Indigenous diets was profound and often devastating. The destruction of Indigenous foodways was a primary and persistent structure of settler colonial historical oppression [13]. This disruption occurred through various means:
Warfare and destruction of crops, habitats, and game
Imposition of unhealthful or culturally inappropriate rations and commodity foods
Environmental, land, and ecological losses
Impaired access to safe and healthy environments
Exposure to environmental contaminants
The Indian Removal Act (1831) and the Indian Appropriations Act (1851) further restricted Indigenous peoples' access to their traditional foods and foodways [13]. Forced onto reservations, many Indigenous people had to live off rations, often consisting of expired or spoiled meat products and processed foods higher in fats, carbohydrates, and sugars [13].
The introduction of commodity foods through the U.S. Government's Food Distribution Programme on Indian Reservations created new "traditional" foods, such as fried bread, which represent relics of the introduction of white flour and other processed foods [13]. While these commodities enabled survival, they also impaired health and traditional foodways.
As a result of these historical and ongoing oppressions, Indigenous Peoples today face higher rates of food insecurity, obesity-related conditions, and lower life expectancy compared to other ethnic groups [13]. However, despite these challenges, decolonised, resilient, and transcendent Indigenous practises persist, as communities work to reclaim their traditional foodways and improve their health outcomes.
The Rise of Nutritional Science
The field of nutritional science has evolved significantly over the past few centuries, shaping our understanding of diet and health. This journey has been marked by groundbreaking discoveries, government interventions, and ongoing debates about the best approach to healthy eating.
Discovery of vitamins and minerals
The discovery of vitamins and minerals revolutionised our understanding of nutrition. In 1747, Scottish surgeon James Lind made a pivotal discovery when he found that citrus fruits could prevent scurvy, a deadly disease causing poor wound healing and bleeding gums [14]. This led to the British Royal Navy adopting the practice of using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, earning British sailors the nickname "limey".
The concept of essential nutrients began to take shape in the late 19th century. In 1881, Russian doctor Nikolai Lunin observed that mice fed an artificial mixture of known milk constituents died, while those fed whole milk thrived. He concluded that milk must contain "small quantities of unknown substances essential to life" [14].
The term "vitamine" was coined in 1912 by Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk, who proposed that various diseases could be cured if these nutrients were present in foods [15]. This marked the beginning of a new era in nutritional science.
Government dietary guidelines
As nutritional science advanced, governments began to take an active role in providing dietary advice to the public. The U.S. Federal government has been offering dietary guidance for over 100 years through various mediums, from bulletins and posters to websites and social media [16].
A significant milestone came in 1980 with the publication of the first "Dietary Guidelines for Americans". These guidelines marked a shift from focusing on nutrient adequacy to addressing the impact of diet on chronic diseases. They offered advice on limiting dietary components such as sugar, fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and sodium, which were beginning to be seen as risk factors for certain chronic conditions [16].
The evolution of dietary guidelines reflects the changing landscape of public health concerns. As nutritional deficiencies became less prevalent and chronic diseases emerged as leading causes of death, the focus shifted to how diet can play a role in disease prevention and health promotion [16].
The Food Pyramid and its critics
In 1992, the USDA introduced the Food Guide Pyramid, a visual representation of dietary recommendations [17]. The pyramid aimed to help consumers put the Dietary Guidelines into action, illustrating concepts of variety, proportionality, and moderation in food choices [17].
In 2011, the USDA replaced MyPyramid with MyPlate, a simpler visual guide using a plate divided into quarters to represent different food groups [18]. While MyPlate was generally seen as an improvement, offering clearer information on portion sizes and emphasising the importance of fruits and vegetables, it still faced criticism for not providing more nuanced guidance on food choices within each group.
Diet Culture and Gender
Diet culture has had a profound impact on both women and men, shaping societal expectations and individual behaviours.
Women's magazines and diet advice
Women's magazines have played a significant role in perpetuating diet culture. These publications often feature articles and advertisements that promote unrealistic beauty standards and encourage women to pursue them through dieting and exercise.
Research has shown that 61% of adults and 66% of children in the UK feel negatively towards their bodies, with 57% of adults feeling under-represented in media and advertising [19].
This underrepresentation contributes to the development of negative body image and can lead to disordered eating behaviours.
The media's influence on body image has been substantial, with unrealistic beauty ideals increasing self-criticism and potentially contributing to the development of eating disorders [1]. Celebrities and influencers have recently begun to challenge these norms, with figures like Lizzo, Lena Dunham, and Serena Williams becoming outspoken body positivity advocates. Their efforts have helped to reclaim the narrative around celebrity bodies in popular culture.
The 'ideal' female body through the ages
The concept of the 'ideal' female body has undergone significant changes throughout history:
Ancient Egypt: Women were considered beautiful if they were youthful and slim with narrow hips [2].
Ancient Greece: The ideal woman had a pale complexion, wide hips, and a large chest [20].
Renaissance: The desirable body type included larger breasts, a rounded stomach, and full hips [21].
Victorian era: A plump, full figure with an hourglass shape was favoured, often achieved through the use of corsets [8, 9].
1920s: The ideal shifted to an androgynous body type, flat-chested with short hair [5].
1950s: The curvy hourglass figure returned to prominence, influenced by actresses like Marilyn Monroe [21].
1960s-1990s: The pendulum swung back to thinness, culminating in the 'heroin chic' look of the 1990s [21].
Present day: Social media has promoted an hourglass yet thin body type, often achieved through editing apps and cosmetic procedures [21].
These ever-changing ideals highlight the arbitrary nature of beauty standards and the importance of body acceptance.
Men's fitness culture and protein obsession
While women have long been the primary target of diet culture, men have not been immune to its effects. There has been a growing focus on men's fitness and body image in recent years, particularly in 'gym bro' culture.
A study by psychologist Richard Achiro found that many active men in Los Angeles were engaging in excessive use of protein powders and supplements, which had become a "variant of disordered eating" [22].
The 'gym bro' culture, promoted on social media, promotes daily gym sessions, precise meal measurements, protein powders and pre-workout supplements. While marketed as wellness and goal-setting, these behaviours are often consistent with eating disorders [23]. The culture normalises obsessive practices and promotes an unhealthy fixation on physical appearance.
It's important to note that a balanced approach to fitness allows for maintaining muscle mass, discipline, and motivation without sacrificing mental and physical well-being. This can include taking rest days, not stressing about calorie counts, and eating for enjoyment rather than just for physical gain.
The Globalisation of Diet Culture
Western influence on global eating habits
The globalisation of diet culture has had a profound impact on eating habits worldwide, with Western dietary patterns exerting a significant influence on developing nations. This trend has its roots in colonialism, where the notion that "white is better" has shaped food choices in Asian, African, and South American countries [24].
The fascination with Western lifestyles has led to higher rates of animal product consumption in these regions, as people aspire to emulate the perceived quality of life enjoyed in Western societies.
The Western diet, characterised by high intakes of processed foods, refined grains, red meat, and added sugars, has spread rapidly across the globe [25]. This dietary pattern has replaced traditional, plant-based diets in many countries, often with detrimental health consequences. For instance, China's recent obsession with dairy products exemplifies how a nation can view Western dietary habits as a barometer of progress and a good life [24].
Fast food and obesity epidemics
The proliferation of fast food chains has played a significant role in the globalisation of diet culture. Fast food consumption has increased fivefold over the past three decades among adolescents. About 30% of children to more than 50% of college students use fast food daily [26].
This trend has contributed to a global obesity epidemic, with more than 33% of adults and 17% of children and teenagers being obese in the United States.
Fast food is typically high in calories, fat, saturated and trans fat, sugar, simple carbohydrates, and sodium [27]. Studies have shown that fast food consumption is strongly associated with weight gain and obesity, increasing the risk of obesity-related diseases [26]. The exponential rise in obesity rates, particularly in developed nations like the United States and the United Kingdom, has become a significant public health concern [27].
The impact of fast food on health is alarming. A study found that consuming fast food was related to obesity, with a significant relationship observed between obesity and the consumption of sandwiches (OR: 1.35), fried chicken (OR: 1.4), and pizza (OR: 1.8) [26]. Moreover, fast food consumption was related to abdominal obesity as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) (OR: 1.46) [26].
Cultural appropriation in diet trends
The globalisation of diet culture has also led to instances of cultural appropriation in food trends. Cultural appropriation occurs when a dominant culture adopts the cultural customs of a non-dominant culture without understanding or respecting the original context [28].
In the realm of food, this can manifest in various ways, such as white chefs profiting from selling ethnic foods without any benefit to the communities that contributed to the food culture [28]. This appropriation can be particularly hurtful when foods that were once ridiculed become trendy once a white chef deems them exotic and exciting. It goes beyond simply enjoying another culture's food and enters the realm of the dominant (white) culture monetising and profiting from cuisines that are not traditionally theirs [28].
The globalisation of diet culture has transformed eating habits worldwide, often at the expense of traditional, healthier diets. As we grapple with the consequences of these changes, it's crucial to consider how we can promote healthier eating habits while respecting and preserving diverse food cultures.
Alternative Approaches to Diet
Intuitive eating and anti-diet movement
Intuitive eating has become a popular concept in the nutrition world, offering a refreshing alternative to traditional dieting approaches. This complex and nuanced approach aims to heal one's relationship with food, going beyond the oversimplified notion of "eating when you're hungry and stopping when you're full" [29].
At its core, intuitive eating encourages individuals to reject the diet mentality and make peace with food, challenging the restrictive rules imposed by diet culture [29].
The principles of intuitive eating, first established by Evelyn and Elyse, provide guidelines for a balanced and positive approach to eating [29].
These principles encourage individuals to honour their hunger, feel their fullness, and challenge the "food police" that monitor unreasonable dietary rules [30]. By rejecting the diet mentality, intuitive eating empowers individuals to make food choices that honour their well-being, taste buds, and culture [30].
Mindfulness and emotional eating
Mindful eating is a technique that promotes awareness of the food and drinks one consumes, focusing on the present moment and observing how food affects one's body and mind [31]. This approach can help individuals manage food cravings, make healthier food choices, and develop a more positive relationship with food and their bodies.
Practising mindfulness during meals involves eating with total awareness, free from distractions such as phones or television. By paying close attention to the sensory experience of eating, individuals can become more attuned to their body's signals of hunger and fullness [31]. This increased awareness can lead to better digestion, feeling satisfied with less food, and making wiser choices about future meals.
Mindful eating also addresses emotional eating by encouraging individuals to explore the relationship between their emotions and food consumption [31]. By asking, "What am I truly hungry for?" individuals can begin to distinguish between physical hunger and emotional needs, leading to more conscious choices about when and what to eat.
Health at Every Size philosophy
The Health at Every Size (HAES) approach offers a paradigm shift in how we view health and weight. This philosophy encourages healthy eating and enjoyable physical activity as a means to feel better and live longer, without focusing on weight loss through dieting [32].
HAES promotes the idea that health is possible at every size and that weight is not necessarily an indicator of overall well-being.
Scientific evidence supports the effectiveness of the HAES approach. A 2006 study comparing HAES to a traditional weight-loss programme found that after two years, participants in the HAES group had healthier blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and were more physically active than those in the dieting group [32]. This suggests that focusing on health-promoting behaviours rather than weight loss can lead to improved health outcomes.
The HAES philosophy emphasises intuitive eating, encouraging individuals to listen to their bodies' hunger and fullness cues and to choose foods that are both satisfying and nourishing [32]. It also promotes finding enjoyable forms of physical activity rather than exercising solely for weight loss. By removing the focus on weight and eliminating "forbidden" foods, HAES aims to create a more sustainable and positive approach to health and well-being.
Conclusion
The journey through the evolution of diet culture reveals its profound influence on our relationship with food and body image. From ancient rituals to modern trends, societal pressures and scientific discoveries have shaped our eating habits and perceptions of health.
The globalisation of Western dietary patterns has led to significant changes in traditional food cultures worldwide, often with detrimental health consequences. This shift has contributed to the rise of obesity and related health issues, highlighting the need to address the impact of diet culture on public health.
As we move forward, alternative approaches like intuitive eating, mindfulness, and the Health at Every Size philosophy offer promising paths to a healthier relationship with food. These methods encourage individuals to listen to their bodies, make peace with food, and focus on overall well-being rather than weight loss.
To address the obesity epidemic, it's crucial to promote better nutrition and lifestyle choices without relying on restrictive dieting. By embracing a more balanced and inclusive approach to health, we can work towards creating a society that values well-being over appearance and fosters a positive relationship with food and our bodies.
References:
[1] - https://www.morticianinthekitchen.com/recipe-blog/ancient-egyptian-practise-of-mummifying-food
[9] - https://sites.owu.edu/trident/2021/03/01/mediaeval-food-less-sugar-some-spice-but-generally-nice/
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